Despite the growing awareness about family violence, there is still a high prevalence of violence against women in Malaysia and across the world, often at the hands of men close to them. — 123rf.com
AROUND 30% of women aged 15 and older worldwide have faced physical and/or sexual violence at least once in their lifetime, according to the World Health Organisation (WHO). If we delve deeper into the global figures, 26% of women in the same age bracket experienced violence at the hands of intimate partners (WHO, 2018). Not only that, 58% of girls and women killed worldwide were murdered by their own intimate partners or family members (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2021).
Local figures paint a grim picture as well: Malaysia’s Women, Family & Community Development Ministry reported in the Dewan Rakyat that 7,568 domestic violence cases were recorded by the Royal Malaysia Police (PDRM) in 2021, which was 42% higher than the previous year. In addition, the Talian Kasih helpline received 3,028 calls about domestic violence during the same period (Galen Centre, 2022). Previous research found 8% of Malaysian women aged 18 to 50 faced intimate partner violence (Shuib et al, 2013).
The global figures will be higher if we take into account other forms of domestic violence beyond physical and/or domestic abuse.
These numbers speak for themselves: notwithstanding growing awareness about family violence, there is still a high prevalence of violence against women in Malaysia and across the world, often at the hands of men close to them. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 5.2 is to “eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in public and private spheres” – we have a long way to go to achieve it.
Far-reaching impacts
Domestic violence statistics are alarming irrespective of the definition used. Survivors face physical dangers like bodily injuries, miscarriage, hearing and vision loss, or self-harm and suicide. They may have protracted risks of anxiety, depression, or post- traumatic stress, panic, and sleeping and eating disorders. Domestic violence survivors often live in fear and isolation, making it difficult for them to leave an abusive relationship.
Moreover, domestic violence is likely to diminish a survivor’s sense of self-worth, confidence, and self-esteem. There may be disruptions in education, employment, and participation in society, resulting in further accumulated disadvantages for women – the majority of domestic violence survivors – already facing systemic inequality and discrimination.
The family unit
The far-reaching impacts of domestic violence affect not only women, but also the entire family unit. Domestic violence tears at the very fabric of a family unit with unhealthy fear, conflict, and abusive interactions, which may inevitably lead to separations or divorces in many cases. In addition, children are more often than not affected by domestic violence: violence against women and children often take place together, or children may be exposed to abusive behaviour that may have long-term impacts on them.
Either way, children living with domestic violence are denied their rights to a safe and secure upbringing, which undermines their social, emotional, and development needs. In some cases, they may experience ongoing physical and mental health challenges like headaches, anxiety, depression, etc, into adulthood, alongside increased likelihoods of relationship, academic, and alcohol and substance abuse difficulties. Research shows children exposed to domestic violence have a higher risk of becoming a survivor or perpetrator of the same later in life (Radford et al, 2019).
Given the high prevalence and long-term impacts of domestic violence, let us look at three priority areas for interventions to prevent violence in the family: legal reforms, gender equality, and positive masculinity.
Legal reforms
Domestic violence comes in different forms, including but not confined to physical, sexual, emotional, or economic abuse, affecting the entire family unit. This calls for a broader family focus in legal responses against domestic violence.
The Malaysian Domestic Violence Act 1994 protects current or former spouses, children, parents, siblings, and relatives, while defining domestic violence in terms of fear or acts of physical injuries, sexual and other coercion, psychological abuse, illegal confinement, property damage, and intoxication without consent.
The legislation covers different types of domestic violence, specifically physical abuse, sexual or emotional abuse, as well as coercion, and causing fear. Possible legal reform could expand the inclusion of coercive behaviour and property damage within a wider scope of economic abuse. This is important given financial dependence is often one of the main reasons preventing survivors from leaving abusive relationships. We can take a cue here from Australia’s Victorian Family Protection Act 2008 which specifically refers to economic abuse denying financial autonomy or withholding support if the survivor is dependent for living expenses.
Another legal reform could be in the area of child-focused protection, recognising the long-term impacts on children witnessing domestic violence irrespective of whether they are directly subjected to it. A child growing up witnessing abusive behaviour is more likely to normalise and replicate the same behaviour later in life, which calls for legal protection against children being exposed to domestic violence.
In this respect, the Victorian family protection law considers family violence as behaviour that “causes a child to hear or witness, or otherwise be exposed to effects of [different forms of abuse].”
Gender equality
Though both women and men can be survivors or perpetrators of domestic violence, women face a disproportionate risk of being subjected to violence by men.
In Australia, one in four women (23%) compared with one in 14 men (7.3%) experienced intimate partner violence (Australian Bureau of Statistics – Personal Safety Survey, 2022), while 75% of perpetrators were men (Australian Institute of Health & Welfare, 2018).
In Selangor, women were survivors in 224 out of 255 (87.8%) of domestic violence cases reported from January to September 2022 (The Star, 2022). Notwithstanding political correctness, family violence mostly takes place in the wider context of gender discrimination against women.
Women experience disparity in power, resources, and agency compared with men, which often leads to trivialising domestic violence. Entrenched gender inequality in society may justify violence against women by survivor- blaming – “Her behaviour forced him to be abusive.”
This prevents women from standing up and seeking help against domestic violence, while sometimes even normalising it themselves. We need to raise social awareness that nothing justifies domestic violence regardless of whether there was provocation or not – in other words, non-violence is non-negotiable in all circumstances.
Moreover, gender stereotypes – for instance, “weak” women and “strong” men – disempower women, limiting their autonomy based on so-called “acceptable” roles and behaviour in society. These unhealthy assumptions remain in society, while men dominating decision-making increases the likelihood of domestic violence, including coercive control. We must play a proactive role in rejecting these harmful, ingrained gender hierarchies in society, in particular inculcating children with values of respect, equality and non-violence from a young age.
Healthy masculinity
Toxic masculinity refers to social expectations that men have to be “strong”, “superior” and “unemotional”, which is again based on entrenched gender hierarchies in society. Such unhealthy constructs of “manliness” is frequently equated to dominance, increasing the risk of abusive behaviour against women and children in the family.
In addition, men face unrealistic expectations to be “tough” in all situations (“Boys don’t cry”) that makes them inclined to bottle up emotions instead of adopting healthy coping strategies. Though it’s OK not to be OK, toxic masculinity prevents men from addressing inevitable emotions like sadness, frustration, or fear. Research shows repressing emotions is counterproductive and may eventually result in violent outbursts (William & Anderson, 2002).
We need to recognise toxic masculinity not to make excuses for domestic violence, but to develop healthier gender constructs for emotional regulation instead of abusive behaviour by men. We need schools and families to help children, particularly boys, embrace emotions, adopt healthy coping ways, and respect equality from a young age.
There is no alternative to involving men in addressing domestic violence. It can be argued toxic masculinity is dangerous for the entire family – women and children, but also men themselves. Men are liable for convictions and imprisonment due to violent behaviour, while causing irreparable damage to family relationships that cannot be reversed.
We must promote alternative masculine constructs emphasising that real men never engage in violence or abuse, and are, in fact kind, compassionate and empathetic. Specialised mental health services need to support men in transforming toxic masculinity to healthy masculinity, particularly those at risk of abusive behaviour.
Social response
Domestic violence involves a complex interaction of risk factors, requiring multi-pronged legal and social interventions recognising different types of abusive behaviour impacting on the survivor, family, and community. We need legal reforms taking into account less visible forms of violence like economic abuse and intergenerational impacts on children, but the gendered nature of domestic violence means prevention will not only come from legal deterrence. There needs to be social interventions addressing underlying risk factors of gender inequality and toxic masculinity.
We need to foster a culture of equality, empathy, and non-violence from a young age. Domestic violence affects the current and future wellbeing of our nation. This calls for preventing violence in the family, together.
Arman I. Rashid, PhD, is a policy analyst-turned-mental health practitioner.
If you need assistance or know anyone who needs assistance, contact the Women’s Aid Organisation’s hotline at 03-3000 8858 (8am-10pm) or SMS/WhatsApp TINA at 018-988 8058 (24 hours); or go to the One-Stop Crisis Centres (OSCC) located at emergency rooms of government hospitals.
If this article raises issues for you or if you’re concerned about someone you know, reach out to the:
Mental Health Psychosocial Support Service at 03-2935 9935 or 014-322 3392;
Talian Kasih at 15999 or 019-261 5999 on Whats-App;
Jakim’s (Department of Islamic Development Malaysia) family, social and community care centre at 0111-959 8214 on Whats-App;
Buddy Bear helpline for children at 1800-18-BEAR or 1800-18-2327 (Mon-Sun, 6pm-12am), on Facebook Messenger at buddybear.humankind;
National Coalition for Mental Wellbeing at 03-7956 9989 or ncmw.com.my;
Emmanuel Community Care at 011-5861 4681 or emmanuelcommunitycare.com;
Thrive Well at 018-900 3247 or thethrive.center; and
Befrienders Kuala Lumpur at 03-7627 2929 or go to befrienders.org.my/ centre-in-malaysia for a full list of numbers nationwide and operating hours, or email sam@befrienders.org.my.
